Disadvantages Of The Open Cycle Configuration Environmental Sciences Essay

Disadvantages Of The Open Cycle Configuration Environmental Sciences Essay The main problems of todays society are; the ever increasing demand in energy, a possible resource shortage and environmental pollution. Therefore a lot of money is spent in research to find alternative ways of producing energy using Earths natural resources like wind, sun and the ocean. This report is a study on Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) which might be the answer to the energy and environmental problem our world has to face. A basic description and an introduction to the types and principles of operation of closed cycle, open cycle and hybrids of OTEC technology is given in this report. Emphasis is shown on the hybrid cycle which has advantages compared to other single purpose plants for fresh water production or power generation. The process of desalination of sea water can prove vital for countries which have water shortage. This report is focused on the technology that would be suited for a hybrid cycle OTEC plant situated in Cyprus. Contents Table of Figures 1. Aims and Objectives The aim of this project is to investigate the characteristics of a dual purpose plant for simultaneous production of desalinated water and electric power. An attempt will be made to state the conditions and criteria for adjusting the ratio of desalinated water to power production and also how this ratio is affected by a variation in seawater temperature and pressure. In addition, different design considerations of the hybrid cycle particularly suitable for an OTEC plant operating in Cyprus will be discussed. 2. Introduction The ocean surface absorbs more heat from the sun in one square mile than could be produced by burning 7000 barrels of oil (Avery Wu, 1994). Therefore the solar energy absorbed per day by the surface waters can be used to provide a green, zero-emission production of electricity. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion or OTEC is the technology that meets the technical requirements and is economically viable for harvesting the solar energy absorbed by the ocean. OTEC plants make use of the thermal gradient that exists between the surface of the ocean and the deep cold waters to initiate a power producing cycle. The warm tropical surface waters (at a temperature of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 22 °C) and the deep ocean waters (at a depth of 1000m a temperature of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 4 °C) are used as a source of thermal energy to vaporize and condense the working fluid of a turbine-generator system. The thermodynamic cycle for this heat engine is the called the Rankine cycle. OTEC systems maybe either clos ed cycle, open cycle or a combination of the two also known as hybrid systems. In the closed cycle, seawater is used to vaporize and condense a working fluid, such as ammonia, which drives a turbine-generator in a closed loop, producing electricity. In the open cycle, surface water is flash-evaporated in a vacuum chamber. The resulting low-pressure steam is used to drive a turbine-generator. Cold seawater is used to condense the steam after it has passed through the turbine. The open cycle can, therefore, be configured to produce fresh water as well as electricity. The hybrid cycle consists of both the closed cycle system and the open cycle system. The system is interconnected and arranged in such a manner that the former cycle provides electricity and the latter yields desalinated water. Such a system has promising potential in countries which have issues with lack of water. 3. Literature Review 3.1 Closed Cycle OTEC System 3.1.1 Principle of Operation The closed cycle was first proposed in 1881, by DArsonval in France, and was demonstrated in 1979, when a small plant mounted on a barge off Hawaii (Mini-OTEC) produced 50 kW of gross power, for several months, with a net output of 18 kW (Vega, 1992). The principle of operation of the closed OTEC system is demonstrated in figure 1 below. Figure : Principle of operation of a closed cycle OTEC system (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) In the closed cycle, the OTEC system utilizes the warm surface seawater to vaporize a working fluid, such as ammonia, which flows through a heat exchanger (evaporator). The vapor expands at modest pressures and drives a turbine which is coupled to a generator that produces electricity. The vapor then passes through another heat exchanger (condenser) where it is condensed back into a liquid using cold seawater from pumped from the oceans depths through a cold water pipe. A pressurizer or feed pump is used to pump the condensed working fluid back to the evaporator to complete the cycle, producing continuous power generation as long as the warm water and cold water continue to flow. The closed OTEC cycle is basically the same as the conventional Rankine cycle employed in steam engines, in which the steam is condensed and returned to the boiler after driving a piston or steam turbine, OTEC differs by using a different working fluid and lower pressures and temperatures (Avery Wu, 1994). The four processes of the ideal Rankine cycle are listed below: 1. Isentropic expansion (Turbine) 2. Isobaric heat rejection (Condenser) 3. Isentropic compression (Pump) 4. Isobaric heat addition (Evaporator) 3.2 Open Cycle OTEC System 3.2.1 Principle of Operation The open cycle concept was first proposed in the 1920s and demonstrated in 1930, off Cuba by its inventor, a Frenchman by the name of Georges Claude (Vega, 1992). In the open cycle, the warm seawater is the working fluid. The warm seawater is pumped into a vacuum chamber where it is flash- evaporated to produce steam at an absolute pressure of about 2.4kPa. The steam passes through a low pressure turbine which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity. The steam exiting the turbine flows is condensed by cold seawater pumped from the oceans depths through a cold-water pipe. In this open cycle configuration a surface condenser can be used and therefore the condensed steam remains separated from the cold seawater and provides a supply of desalinated water. Figure 2 below shows the principle of operation of the open cycle OTEC system. Figure : Principle of operation of an open cycle OTEC system (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) 3.2.2 Disadvantages of the Open Cycle Configuration This type of configuration produces less power than the closed cycle alternative but it is attractive in places where water shortage is an issue. In addition, the very low pressure at which the system operates means that connections must be carefully sealed to prevent atmospheric air from entering the system, which could bring the operation to a halt. Another disadvantage compared to the closed cycle system is that the specific volume of the low-pressure steam is very large compared to the pressurized working fluid used in the closed cycle system. Therefore the components must have large flow areas to ensure that steam flow does not reach a high enough velocity which could damage the turbine. Also, a large turbine is required to accommodate the very high volumetric flow rates of the low-pressure steam in order to generate a sufficient amount of electrical power. 3.3 Hybrid Cycle OTEC System 3.3.1 Principle of Operation A hybrid cycle combines the features of both the closed-cycle and open-cycle systems. In a hybrid OTEC system, warm seawater enters a vacuum chamber where it is flash-evaporated into steam, which is similar to the open-cycle evaporation process. The steam vaporizes the working fluid of a closed-cycle loop on the other side of an ammonia vaporizer. The vaporized fluid then drives a turbine that produces electricity. The steam condenses within the heat exchanger and provides desalinated water. Figure 3 is an illustration of the hybrid cycle OTEC system. Figure : Principle of operation of a hybrid cycle OTEC system (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) The electricity produced by the system can be delivered to a utility grid or used to manufacture methanol, hydrogen, refined metals, ammonia, and similar products. 3.4 OTEC Components The main components of an OTEC system are described below- namely, heat exchangers, evaporators, turbines and condensers. 3.4.1 Heat Exchangers for Closed Cycle OTEC Systems The design of heat exchangers to meet industrial requirements for efficiency, durability, ease of manufacture, packaging, system integration reliability and cost has led to an extensive technology devoted just to this subject. The special requirements of OTEC can be met by heat exchangers with different operating characteristics than conventional designs. Also, research has been done to increase the overall heat transfer coefficients in ways that will reduce the heat exchanger costs per kilowatt of net power generated. This has led to the investigation of various potential types of heat exchangers with features designed to be optimal for OTEC applications. Some of these are briefly described below. Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers: This is the most widely used type of heat exchanger for industrial evaporator and condenser applications. As the name implies, this type consists of a shell and a bundle of tubes inside it. Specifically for OTEC applications, water flows through the tubes and the working fluid flows across the tube bank in the middle section. In conventional ones, seawater flows through the tubes, and the working fluid evaporates or condenses in a shell around them. This design can be enhanced by using fluted tubes: the working fluid flows into the grooves and over the crests, producing a thin film that evaporates more effectively. Plate Heat Exchangers: Another type of heat exchanger that would offer advantages in performance and cost is the plate heat exchanger. The plate type heat exchanger is more compact than the shell and tube configuration. In this type, the seawater and the working fluid flow in alternate channels separated by parallel plates. Suitable manifolds are used to guide the fluid into the proper channels. With this type of heat exchanger the gains in heat transfer coefficient can be up to 100-200%, compared with the conventional shell and tube designs. The material which heat exchangers are made of is very important in terms of cost and performance. Titanium was the original material chosen for closed-cycle heat exchangers because it resists corrosion. However, it is an expensive option for plants that use large heat exchangers. Therefore other cheaper materials such as corrosion-resistant copper-nickel alloys can be used to protect platform and cold-water pipes, but are not compatible with ammonia, the most common working fluid. A suitable alternative is aluminium which performs well under marine conditions and results indicate that selected aluminium alloys may last 20 years in seawater (Thomas Hills, 1989). Marine organisms and slime can quickly grow on surfaces exposed to warm seawater- a buildup known as biofouling- and this reduces the heat transfer efficiency. Laboratory experiments indicate that the addition of chlorine in the pipes can prevent biofouling (Panchal, Larsen-Basse, Little, 1984). 3.4.2 Evaporators for Open Cycle OTEC Systems Open-cycle flash-evaporators include those with open-channel flow, falling films, and falling jets. These conventional evaporators typically perform to within 70% to 80% of the maximum thermodynamic performance at acceptable hydraulic losses. The technological development led to a vertical-spout evaporator that can perform to within 90% of the thermodynamic limit (National Renewable Energy Laboratory). In this evaporator, water is drawn upward through a vertical pipe (a spout) and violently sprayed outward by escaping steam (Bharathan Penney, 1984). To enhance performance, the spray may fall on screens that further break up the droplets and increase the evaporation rate. To avoid pressure loss, the evaporator has simple intake and exit systems that separate the steam from the discharge. Steam continues through the system, and the remaining seawater is discharged from the bottom of the evaporator. Violent flashing in a spout evaporator causes seawater droplets to be entrained by the steam. If they are not removed, these droplets can cause erosion and stress-corrosion cracking in turbine blades and contaminate the desalinated water discharge as well. Passing the steam through the commercially available mist eliminators used in the process industry removes a sufficient quantity of these seawater droplets (Bharathan Penney, 1984). 3.4.3 Turbines In the open cycle process, after the droplets are removed, steam flows through large, low-pressure turbines, entering at a pressure of about 2.4 kPa. These turbines must be able to handle the large steam flows necessary to produce a significant amount of electric power. Multistage turbines used in nuclear or coal-fired power plants are already available. The low-pressure stages of these turbines typically operate at conditions close to those needed in an open-cycle OTEC plant. In close cycle OTEC systems the turbine needs not be so large because it works with vapor at elevated pressures. 3.4.4 Condensers for Open Cycle OTEC Systems Once the steam passes through the turbines, it can be condensed in direct-contact condensers or surface condensers. A surface condenser consists of an intermediate solid wall, which is absent in direct-contact condensers and therefore the latter provides more effective condensation (Bharathan, Parsons, Althof 1988). In one design-a two-stage condenser (see figure 4 below) developed at Solar Energy Research Institute-cold seawater is distributed through two open-ended vessels filled with a commercially available structured packing material. About 80% of the steam is condensed as it flows through the first vessel in the same direction as the cold seawater. The remaining steam is routed into the bottom of the second vessel and flows through it in the opposite direction to the seawater. At the top of the second vessel, a vacuum system pumps out the non-condensable (inert) gases along with any uncondensed steam (National Renewable Energy Laboratory). Figure : Illustration of a two stage condenser (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) Surface condensers keep the cooling seawater separate from the spent steam during condensation. By using indirect contact, the condensers produce desalinated water that is relatively free of seawater impurities. The surface condensers considered for use in OTEC systems are similar to those used in conventional power plants; however, these surface condensers must operate under lower pressures and with higher amounts of non-condensable gases in the steam. These non-condensable gases which are present in the open cycle system are released from the seawater when it is exposed to low pressures under vacuum and are namely oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Air can also enter the open cycle vacuum chamber through leaks therefore decent construction techniques can reduce the rate of air leakage to very low levels. These gases, if are not removed from the vacuum vessel, they can build up enough pressure to stop evaporation. An exhaust compressor is usually used to remove these non-condensab le gases. The compressor however requires about 10% of the total power generated by the system (Parsons, Bharathan, Althof, 1985). 4. Methodology In this section, pending work and project plan summary will be described. For the final project, the literature review might be expanded a bit more to include the various types of working fluids that can be used. Furthermore, a section explaining the thermodynamics behind the operation of the OTEC cycle (Carnot efficiency and Rankine cycle) will be added, followed by a more realistic calculation on the OTEC actual thermal efficiency, net power output and production of desalinated water. Once these calculations are carried out, a reasonably concise section on the application of solar heating on OTEC will be written. Then an investigation on the effect of increasing water inlet temperature on power generation and fresh water production will be carried out. In addition, the effect of an increase in pressure on power generation and fresh water production will also be included. Computational software such as Wolframalpha or Matlab will help in determining the relationship between variable temperatures and pressures on power generation and desalinated water production. If time allows it, simulation software such as Simul8 will be used to find the optimum conditions for the hybrid cycle OTEC plant. A section of discussion and analysis of results will follow explaining the obtained results, including suggestions for improving the design. Finally, a segment explaining by what means the proposed hybrid cycle OTEC plant is suitable for operation in Cyprus. This segment will include the economic factors involved (need for finance, government subsidies etc.), drawbacks and benefits such a plant will have on the island. 5. Gantt Chart The Gantt Chart below represents the plan for completion of the project including important deadline dates for presentations and submission of the report. Figure : Figure showing the Gantt Chart 6. Conclusion Water and energy are essential for human life. A steady supply of energy and water is indispensable for improving the living standard and economic stability of any country, especially countries which face water shortage problems like Cyprus. The goal of this report is to demonstrate the characteristics of a dual purpose OTEC plant and through various design considerations find the optimum conditions for such a plant to be as productive and as efficient as possible and at the same time be economically viable to attract investors.

Changes and Continuity in Western Europe

During the period of 1492 to 1750, Europe experienced drastic changes during their Age of Discovery. As a result of contact and colonization, Western Europe’s economy, political, social, and military systems changed, but also maintained certain aspects that enabled them to build strong civilizations. Such changes include increased (international) trade routes, more centralized governments such as monarchies, decreased unifying influence of the Catholic Church, and increased interest in military conquest and expansion. In terms of the economy, industrialization and manufacturing drove the economy forward, catalyzing change and developments that would contribute to the economy. Advancements in metallurgy produced an increased demand for skilled blacksmiths and detailed metal work. State sponsored trading companies and colonial ventures were investments that had a lasting influence. The ventures were mainly directed at the Americas, which were rich sources of gold, silver, sugar, and other desired goods. This new international trade opened infinite possibilities for the economy to grow and expand. These ventures also brought American crops back to Europe, such as potatoes, which increased specialized agriculture. However, through these increased changes within the economic system, many aspects remained behind. Most notably was in agriculture, where farmers continued relying on the methods and techniques of the Middle Ages, such as the three-field system. Although there were innovations during the 18th century, they were not enough to noticeably improve the productivity, and many old crops were grown along with new crops, which resulted in a lower production of the old crops. Politically, important changes, mainly the Glorious Revolution, impacted Europe in such a way that there is a lasting impression to this day. The decline in feudal balance resulted in more centralized government states, therefore leading to absolute and parliamentary monarchies. When France, England, and the Netherlands gained power through international trade, Spain lost its dominance while slowly falling behind the new major powers of Western Europe. Parts of the European political systems that remained untouched included the feudal political forms that remained strong, even with introduction of monarchies. Since European states thirsted for expansion of their states, military remained a top priority in funding; therefore, the strong feudal forms remained, although with shifted balance. Furthermore, ordinary people were not highly affected by the political changes, because politics did not concern them; all they had to worry about was paying their taxes as usual, and the general economic life was not altered. In terms of the social system and structure, a main change that altered the social structure was commercialization, which created a new social class, the proletariats, who suffered from poverty. Other notable social changes include the emergence of a European-style family, which emphasized the nuclear family structure, and intensified links between family and individual property, and the decline of influence of the Catholic Church, which cause a separation of peoples’ religious and daily lives. However, women maintained their low statuses as inferiors to men, and have fewer alternatives when Protestants abolished convents. In addition, although the Catholic Church lost its influence, the elite remained powerful and limited cultural movements, mirroring that of the Dark Ages but to a lesser extent because of the Enlightenment. Militarily, the main advancements were evident in the navy, and skills in building stronger, bigger ships capable of sailing the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The increased interest in military conquest supported state-sponsored expeditions and ventures. France formed a professional military, and Italy became more militarized, with majority of Western European states improving their navies. Similar to their ancestors, the European states used their dominating armies and navies to expand their boundaries and conquer neighbouring lands. The coastal states gained more territory as a result of having superior naval forces, notably Britain. Throughout the period of 15th to 18th centuries, the changes that occurred, heavily influenced the development of the states into independent, dominating forces with Western Europeans gaining their own unique identity. Although there were more changes than continuities, the aspects that did last through this period aided in the development of others, such as how the feudal political forms aided the emerging monarchies in becoming stronger, lasting till modern day. Europe’s Age of Discovery was a time for drastic and rapid changes, changes for the best, and not necessarily for the worst. Guns, Germs, and Steel. Dir. Jerad Diamond. National Geographic, 2005. DVD. Hoffman, Philip T. â€Å"Prices, the Military Revolution, and Western Europe's Comparative Advantage in Violence. † Economic History Review, Feb2011 Supplement. Vol. 64. 2011. 39. Print. â€Å"Outline. † World Civilizations, AP Edition. Pearson Education, 2010. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. . â€Å"Transformation of the West. † World Civilizations. Pearson Education, 2010. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. .

What Everybody Is Saying About Work Essay Samples Work Ethic Is Wrong and Why

What Everybody Is Saying About Work Essay Samples Work Ethic Is Wrong and Why The Battle Over Work Essay Samples Work Ethic and How to Win It On the opposite side, obtaining a list of good persuasive essay topics is insufficient. Observe that the objective of a persuasive speech is like the purpose for writing an argumentative or persuasive essay. The simplest way to find out the sort of an essay is to realize the writer's point of view. The main portion of a quick essay is known as the body. First and foremost it's essential to be certain that you comprehend the essay question fully and your essay answers each part of the question adequately. It will be simpler that you compose a great persuasive essay if it's a subject in which you have knowledge. Qualities of a great persuasive essay topic The topic needs to be specific. Most academic essay topics usually ask you to select a side in an argument or maybe to defend a specific side against criticism. Usual attitudes appear in nearly every part of the work environments. To begin with, it proves that you care about your work and you have sufficient respect for your employer to appear punctually. The workers who possess very good work ethic should be provided high position and promotion on the job. If you wish to demonstrate a superior work ethic, you're want to give examples. Public high schools have their very own fair share of issues and in the event the student isn't careful, they could wind up in a huge mess. Students have to compose essays based on the teacher's instructions or their preferred style in writing. While trying to understand how to write a persuasive essay step by step, they forget about another critical activity. High school students need to compose essays on a number of topics which at first may appear to have nothing in common. Choosing Good Work Essay Samples Work Ethic When picking a high school essay format, step one is to recognize the kind of essay you want to write. There's no ideal solution on how best to compose an effective essay. For instance, the price of a persuasive essay will differ from a proposal essay. Sample persuasive essays can also offer inspiration on topics to write on in addition to serve as examples about how to compose your essay. Before writing any form of academic paper, it is very important to choose the subject, and the persuasive essay really isn't the exception. It's possible for you to discover narrative essay examples wherever you locate a very good story. Make certain to read your essay and make certain it is logical. In this manner, you are going to be in a position to know for sure what your essay is all about before devising your thesis. Weave in your perspective to turn your essay unique. Of all Of the forms of essay, writing a brief essay may appear to be the easiest. The Key to Successful Work Essay Samples Work Ethic Though, after not performing up to my ability for three decades, my GPA is not able to demonstrate the change that I've undergone since the beginning of the year. The other significant factor in work is character whereby one, is predicted to maintain honesty, self-discipline and prepared to do the work. Such last-minute searching never becomes futile, which causes unfinished essay assignments and ends in a poor grade. Selecting an excellent topic for your essay is among the most significant and frequently tricky parts for many students. You can readily find essay writing services which could write for you a t cheap prices. Personal essays can at times consist of personal information which you would not like to share. Essay writing is normally practiced is schools. Writing a persuasive essay can be complicated because you're not merely presenting the research materials you have gathered but you're trying to influence your readers. It has been around for quite a long time. Reviewing some narrative essay examples will be able to help you to organize your information and help you decide how to compose each paragraph to acquire the best outcomes. Most Noticeable Work Essay Samples Work Ethic You must find the most suitable resources for your essay along with patience when finding the most suitable inspiration to write. Should you need more assistance with editing and revising, there are two or three free tools readily available online. The whole use of the interview is for the manager to determine if you're the very best fit for the job. The major element which creates a persuasive essay in English stand out from the remainder of assignments is the use of reasoning.

Apple And Its Impact On The Company - 1448 Words

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